The ethclient package from Go-Ethereum (Geth) provides an API wrapper for JSON-RPC requests to the Ethereum network, similar to web3.js and ethers.js.
However, some capabilities of the JSON-RPC, like transaction tracing, are not exposed in API of ethclient (and web3.js and ethers.js).
This tutorial shows how to use ethclient for actions where the ethclient supports the JSON-RPC call and when it does not.
As the diagram below illustrates, sometimes we can accomplish an action by using an API in ethclient, but sometimes we have to craft the RPC call ourselves:
At the end of the tutorial, we will show how to execute a blob transaction, which Ethereum recently added support for in the Decun upgrade.
We will also perform some Ethereum transaction related concepts like signing and verifying digital signatures.
Prerequisites
The Go language should be installed on your computer; if not, see the download instructions.
Some basic Go programming.
Getting started
We will use the Sepolia network throughout this tutorial, but what we show will also work on mainnet or other testnets. Be sure to have Sepolia ETH.
Operations we will do in this tutorial:
Fetching the suggested gas price on the network
Estimating gas for a transaction
Constructing and sending an EIP1559 raw transaction
Signing and verifying Ethereum messages
Retrieving an account's nonce (number of transaction)
Tracing a transaction
Finally, sending an EIP-4844 blob transaction
To start, create a new project folder, open it and initialize with:
go mod init eth-rpcWe just created our project module. If that was successful, you should see a 'go.mod' file that looks like this
Install the necessary dependencies:
go get -u github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum@v1.13.14
go get github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/rpc@v1.13.14This will generate a 'go.sum' file.
Troubleshooting Tip:
If you encounter module-related issues, try the following:
Delete your 'go.mod' and 'go.sum' files and re-initialize it with go mod init eth-rpc.
Run go mod tidy to synchronize dependencies.
If the issue remains, clear your module cache with go clean -modcache and repeat steps 1 and 2.
Now paste the following code to a 'main.go' file inside the project:
package main
import "fmt"
const (
sepoliaRpcUrl = "https://rpc.sepolia.ethpandaops.io" // sepolia rpc url
mainnetRpcUrl = "https://rpc.builder0x69.io/" // mainnet rpc url
from = "0x571B102323C3b8B8Afb30619Ac1d36d85359fb84"
to = "0x4924Fb92285Cb10BC440E6fb4A53c2B94f2930c5"
data = "Hello Ethereum!"
privKey = "2843e08c0fa87258545656e44955aa2c6ca2ebb92fa65507e4e5728570d36662"
gasLimit = uint64(21500) // adjust this if necessary
wei = uint64(0) // 0 Wei
)
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
}We will update the main.go file as we move on.
You can run this with go run main.go
Now, let's start creating our project functions.
1. Fetching the suggested gas price on the network
With Geth's ethclient package we can use the SuggestGasPrice API to set the gas price for our transaction appropriate for current network conditions.
Behind the scene, this method calls the eth_gasPrice JSON-RPC API.
Create a getGasPrice.go file in the project directory and paste the following code:
package main
import (
"context"
"fmt"
"log"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
)
// getSuggestedGasPrice connects to an Ethereum node via RPC and retrieves the current suggested gas price.
func getSuggestedGasPrice(rpcUrl string) {
// Connect to the Ethereum network using the provided RPC URL.
client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcUrl)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalf("Failed to connect to the Ethereum client: %v", err)
}
// Retrieve the currently suggested gas price for a new transaction.
gasPrice, err := client.SuggestGasPrice(context.Background())
if err != nil {
log.Fatalf("Failed to suggest gas price: %v", err)
}
// Print the suggested gas price to the terminal.
fmt.Println("Suggested Gas Price:", gasPrice.String())
}Now update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
// get gas price on sepolia testnet. This was just added.
}
and run:
go run .The reason we use the command go run . instead of go run main.go is to compile and execute all Go source files within the current directory that belong to the same package. This includes the main.go file (which contains the main function) and any other files, such as the one containing our getSuggestedGasPrice function.
We will be using this command going forward.
After running the command, the suggested gas price should be printed on the terminal. Note that it is in Wei.
2. Estimate gas usage of a transaction
ethclient also includes an EstimateGas method. It returns an estimate of the amount of gas required to successfully process a transaction.
The EstimateGas method calls the eth_estimateGas JSON-RPC API with the constructed message as a parameter.
Create an estimateGas.go file and paste the following code:
package main import (
"context"
"log"
"math/big"
"strings"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/hexutil"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
)
// estimateGas tries estimates the suggested amount of gas that required to execute a given transaction.
func estimateGas(rpcUrl, from, to, data string, value uint64) uint64 {
// Establish an RPC connection to the specified RPC url
client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcUrl)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
var ctx = context.Background()
var (
fromAddr = common.HexToAddress(from) // Convert the from address from hex to an Ethereum address.
toAddr = common.HexToAddress(to) // Convert the to address from hex to an Ethereum address.
amount = new(big.Int).SetUint64(value) // Convert the value from uint64 to *big.Int.
bytesData []byte
)
// Encode the data if it's not already hex-encoded.
if data != "" {
if ok := strings.HasPrefix(data, "0x"); !ok {
data = hexutil.Encode([]byte(data))
}
bytesData, err = hexutil.Decode(data)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
}
// Create a message which contains information about the transaction.
msg := ethereum.CallMsg{
From: fromAddr,
To: &toAddr,
Gas: 0x00,
Value: amount,
Data: bytesData,
}
// Estimate the gas required for the transaction.
gas, err := client.EstimateGas(ctx, msg)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
return gas
}
Update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei) // This was just added.
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas) // This was just added.
}
Run the code with go run .
We should get this:
3. Constructing an EIP1559 raw transaction
Ethereum raw transactions are transactions in their unprocessed form, encoded using the Recursive Length Prefix (RLP) serialization method.
This encoding technique is used by the Ethereum Execution Layer (EL) to serialize and deserialize data.
The raw transaction data is the encoding of the nonce, recipient address(to), transaction value, data payload, and gas limit.
Transaction types
When manually creating raw transactions for Ethereum, there are several transaction types to choose from, ranging from the old legacy transaction (also referred to as type 0), with explicit gas price specification to EIP-1559 transactions (type 2), which introduces a base fee, a priority fee (miners tip), and a max fee per gas for better gas price predictability.
The base fee is determined by the network and remains fixed for all transactions within a block. However, it adjusts between blocks based on netowrk congestion. You can influence your transaction's priority by increasing the priority fee (tip) offered to miners.
Additionally, there is the EIP-2930 transaction (type 1) and EIP-4844 blob transactions (type 3, which we will discuss later in this article).
Choosing a transaction type in Go with Geth
The Geth client through its types package, supports these various transaction types. For our purposes, we'll focus on types.DynamicFeeTx, which corresponds to the EIP-1559 transaction model.
The whole process does not involve making any JSON-RPC call, we just construct the transaction, sign it and serialize it with the RLP encoding scheme.
Create a createEIP1559RawTX.go file and paste the following code:
package main
import (
"bytes"
"context"
"crypto/ecdsa"
"encoding/hex"
"fmt"
"log"
"math/big"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/hexutil"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core/types"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/params"
)
// createRawTransaction creates a raw EIP-1559 transaction and returns it as a hex string.
func createRawTransaction(rpcURL, to, data, privKey string, gasLimit, wei uint64) string {
// Connect to the Ethereum client using the provided RPC URL.
client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcURL)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Retrieve the chain ID for the target Ethereum network.
chainID, err := client.ChainID(context.Background())
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Suggest the base fee for inclusion in a block.
baseFee, err := client.SuggestGasPrice(context.Background())
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Suggest a gas tip cap (priority fee) for miner incentive.
priorityFee, err := client.SuggestGasTipCap(context.Background())
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Calculate the maximum gas fee cap, adding a 2 GWei margin to the base fee plus priority fee.
increment := new(big.Int).Mul(big.NewInt(2), big.NewInt(params.GWei))
gasFeeCap := new(big.Int).Add(baseFee, increment)
gasFeeCap.Add(gasFeeCap, priorityFee)
// Decode the provided private key.
pKeyBytes, err := hexutil.Decode("0x" + privKey)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Convert the private key bytes to an ECDSA private key.
ecdsaPrivateKey, err := crypto.ToECDSA(pKeyBytes)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Extract the public key from the ECDSA private key.
publicKey := ecdsaPrivateKey.Public()
publicKeyECDSA, ok := publicKey.(*ecdsa.PublicKey)
if !ok {
log.Fatal("Error casting public key to ECDSA")
}
// Compute the Ethereum address of the signer from the public key.
fromAddress := crypto.PubkeyToAddress(*publicKeyECDSA)
// Retrieve the nonce for the signer's account, representing the transaction count.
nonce, err := client.PendingNonceAt(context.Background(), fromAddress)
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
// Prepare data payload.
var hexData string
if strings.HasPrefix(data, "0x") {
hexData = data
} else {
hexData = hexutil.Encode([]byte(data))
}
bytesData, err := hexutil.Decode(hexData)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Set up the transaction fields, including the recipient address, value, and gas parameters.
toAddr := common.HexToAddress(to)
amount := new(big.Int).SetUint64(wei)
txData := types.DynamicFeeTx{
ChainID: chainID,
Nonce: nonce,
GasTipCap: priorityFee,
GasFeeCap: gasFeeCap,
Gas: gasLimit,
To: &toAddr,
Value: amount,
Data: bytesData,
}
// Create a new transaction object from the prepared data.
tx := types.NewTx(&txData)
// Sign the transaction with the private key of the sender.
signedTx, err := types.SignTx(tx, types.LatestSignerForChainID(chainID), ecdsaPrivateKey)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Encode the signed transaction into RLP (Recursive Length Prefix) format for transmission.
var buf bytes.Buffer
err = signedTx.EncodeRLP(&buf)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Return the RLP-encoded transaction as a hexadecimal string.
rawTxRLPHex := hex.EncodeToString(buf.Bytes())
return rawTxRLPHex
}Update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei) fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei) // This was just added.
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex) // This was just added.
}
The raw transaction will be created using the private key stored in the 'privKey' variable. To ensure a successful transaction on the Sepolia testnet, replace it (the private key) with a private key that holds test Sepolia ETH.
Run the code with go run .
We should get the raw transaction, as shown below:
We will propagate a raw transaction to the network in the next section.
4. Sending a raw transaction
After creating a raw transaction of any type, we can propagate it to the network with the 'ethclient.SendTransaction' function, which takes in the RLP-decoded raw transaction and makes an eth_sendRawTransaction JSON-RPC call.
There is some added code (the Transaction struct convertHexField function) here that is not mandatory but helps with better printing of the transaction result.
Create a sendRawTX.go file in the project and paste the code below:
package main
import (
"context"
"encoding/hex"
"encoding/json"
"fmt"
"log"
"reflect"
"strconv"
"time"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core/types"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/rlp"
)
// Transaction represents the structure of the transaction JSON.
type Transaction struct {
Type string `json:"type"`
ChainID string `json:"chainId"`
Nonce string `json:"nonce"`
To string `json:"to"`
Gas string `json:"gas"`
GasPrice string `json:"gasPrice,omitempty"`
MaxPriorityFeePerGas string `json:"maxPriorityFeePerGas"`
MaxFeePerGas string `json:"maxFeePerGas"` Value string `json:"value"`
Input string `json:"input"`
AccessList []string `json:"accessList"`
V string `json:"v"`
R string `json:"r"`
S string `json:"s"`
YParity string `json:"yParity"`
Hash string `json:"hash"`
TransactionTime string `json:"transactionTime,omitempty"`
TransactionCost string `json:"transactionCost,omitempty"`
}
// sendRawTransaction sends a raw Ethereum transaction.
func sendRawTransaction(rawTx, rpcURL string) {
rawTxBytes, err := hex.DecodeString(rawTx)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Initialize an empty Transaction struct to hold the decoded data.
tx := new(types.Transaction)
// Decode the raw transaction bytes from hexadecimal to a Transaction struct.
// This step converts the RLP (Recursive Length Prefix) encoded bytes back into
// a structured Transaction format understood by the Ethereum client.
err = rlp.DecodeBytes(rawTxBytes, &tx)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Establish an RPC connection to the specified RPC url client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcURL)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Propagate the transaction
err = client.SendTransaction(context.Background(), tx)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Unmarshal the transaction JSON into a struct
var txDetails Transaction
txBytes, err := tx.MarshalJSON()
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
if err := json.Unmarshal(txBytes, &txDetails); err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Add additional transaction details
txDetails.TransactionTime = tx.Time().Format(time.RFC822)
txDetails.TransactionCost = tx.Cost().String()
// Format some hexadecimal string fields to decimal string
convertFields := []string{"Nonce", "MaxPriorityFeePerGas", "MaxFeePerGas", "Value", "Type", "Gas"}
for _, field := range convertFields {
if err := convertHexField(&txDetails, field); err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
}
// Marshal the struct back to JSON
txJSON, err := json.MarshalIndent(txDetails, "", "\t")
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Print the entire JSON with the added fields
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX Receipt:\n", string(txJSON))
}
func convertHexField(tx *Transaction, field string) error {
// Get the type of the Transaction struct
typeOfTx := reflect.TypeOf(*tx)
// Get the value of the Transaction struct
txValue := reflect.ValueOf(tx).Elem()
// Parse the hexadecimal string as an integer
hexStr := txValue.FieldByName(field).String()
intValue, err := strconv.ParseUint(hexStr[2:], 16, 64)
if err != nil {
return err
}
// Convert the integer to a decimal string
decimalStr := strconv.FormatUint(intValue, 10)
// Check if the field exists
_, ok := typeOfTx.FieldByName(field)
if !ok {
return fmt.Errorf("field %s does not exist in Transaction struct", field)
}
// Set the field value to the decimal string
txValue.FieldByName(field).SetString(decimalStr)
return nil
}
Now update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex)
sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl) // This was just added.
}
Run with go run .
We can see the transaction receipt in the image above
Signing Ethereum messages (digital signature)
Ethereum-signed messages can be used to create verification systems. It is a way to verify ownership or consent without performing an on-chain transaction.
For example, if User A signs a message with their private key and submits it to a platform, the platform takes the user's public address, the message, and the signature and verifies if the signature was indeed signed by User A; if yes, it could serve as an authorization for the platform to do something (whatever the reason was for signing).
Ethereum message signing utilizes the secp256k1 elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA) for cryptographic security.
Ethereum-signed messages also have a prefix, so they are recognizable and unique to the network.
The prefix is: "\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n" + len(message), and then we hash the prefix+message before signing it: sign(keccak256("\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n" + len(message) + message))).
Ethereum also has a recovery ID that is added to the last byte of the signature. The signature is 65 bytes long, split into 3 parts: v, r, and s. r is the first 32 bytes, s is the next 32 bytes, and v is one byte representing the recovery ID.
The recovery ID is either 27 (0x1b) or 28 (0x1c) for Ethereum. You'd usually see this at the end of all Ethereum digital signatures (or signed messages).
The crypto package from Geth used for signing does not add the recovery ID like how Metamask personal_sign does, so we have to manually add this after signing with sig[64]+=27 as you'd see in the code below.
Note that signing messages is completely done off-chain and offline. It doesn't make any JSON-RPC call.
Add the code below a 'signMessage.go' file, in the project directory.
package mainimport (
"crypto/ecdsa"
"encoding/json"
"fmt"
"log"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/hexutil"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto"
)
// SignatureResponse represents the structure of the signature response.
type SignatureResponse struct {
Address string `json:"address,omitempty"`
Msg string `json:"msg,omitempty"`
Sig string `json:"sig,omitempty"`
Version string `json:"version,omitempty"`
}
// signMessage signs a message using the provided private key.
func signMessage(message, privKey string) (string, string) {
// Convert the private key from hex to ECDSA format
ecdsaPrivateKey, err := crypto.HexToECDSA(privKey)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Construct the message prefix
prefix := []byte(fmt.Sprintf("\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n%d", len(message))) messageBytes := []byte(message)
// Hash the prefix and message using Keccak-256
hash := crypto.Keccak256Hash(prefix, messageBytes)
// Sign the hashed message
sig, err := crypto.Sign(hash.Bytes(), ecdsaPrivateKey)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Adjust signature ID to Ethereum's format
sig[64] += 27
// Derive the public key from the private key
publicKeyBytes := crypto.FromECDSAPub(ecdsaPrivateKey.Public().(*ecdsa.PublicKey))
pub, err := crypto.UnmarshalPubkey(publicKeyBytes)
if err != nil {
log.Fatal(err)
}
rAddress := crypto.PubkeyToAddress(*pub)
// Construct the signature response
res := SignatureResponse{
Address: rAddress.String(),
Msg: message,
Sig: hexutil.Encode(sig),
Version: "2", }
// Marshal the response to JSON with proper formatting
resBytes, err := json.MarshalIndent(res, " ", "\t")
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
return res.Sig, string(resBytes)
}
Again, update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex)
sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl)
sig, sDetails := signMessage(data, privKey) // This was just added.
fmt.Println("\nsigned message:", sDetails) // This was just added.
}
You should get this when you run the code:
5. Verifying signatures of signed Ethereum messages
As mentioned in the last section, we can sign and verify signed messages offline. To verify a signed message, we need the signature, the address of the signer, and the original message.
The verifySig function below takes these parameters, decodes the signature into bytes, and removes the Ethereum recovery ID. The reason for this is because the crypto package used for signing and verifying signatures checks that the recovery ID (65th byte) of the signature is less than 4 (my guess is that so it's not limited to just Ethereum signatures).
After this, we reconstruct the necessary parameters (details in the code below) and call the crypto.Ecrecover function, which works similarly to the EVM Ecrecover precompile contract at address (0x01), which returns the address that signed the message (created the signature).
Create a verifySignedMessage.go file in the project and add this code:
package main
import (
"fmt"
"log" "strings"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/hexutil"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto"
)
// handleVerifySig verifies the signature against the provided public key and hash.
func verifySig(signature, address, message string) bool {
// Decode the signature into bytes
sig, err := hexutil.Decode(signature)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Adjust signature to standard format (remove Ethereum's recovery ID)
sig[64] = sig[64] - 27
// Construct the message prefix
prefix := []byte(fmt.Sprintf("\x19Ethereum Signed Message:\n%d", len(message)))
data := []byte(message)
// Hash the prefix and data using Keccak-256
hash := crypto.Keccak256Hash(prefix, data)
// Recover the public key bytes from the signature
sigPublicKeyBytes, err := crypto.Ecrecover(hash.Bytes(), sig)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
ecdsaPublicKey, err := crypto.UnmarshalPubkey(sigPublicKeyBytes)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Derive the address from the recovered public key
rAddress := crypto.PubkeyToAddress(*ecdsaPublicKey)
// Check if the recovered address matches the provided address
isSigner := strings.EqualFold(rAddress.String(), address)
return isSigner
}
Update the main function in main.go:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex)
sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl)
sig, sDetails := signMessage(data, privKey)
fmt.Println("\nsigned message:", sDetails)
if isSigner := verifySig(sig, from, data); isSigner { // This was just added.
fmt.Printf("\n%s signed %s\n", from, data)
} else {
fmt.Printf("\n%s did not sign %s\n", from, data)
}
}
We can now confirm if the private key signed the message, which it did. Run go run .:
Exercise: Pass a different message to the verifySig function. You should get: 0x571B102323C3b8B8Afb30619Ac1d36d85359fb84 did not sign Hello Ethereum!, because of incorrect data.
6. Retrieving an account's nonce (number of transaction)
To get the nonce of an account, we can either use the "PendingNonceAt" or the "NonceAt" function. PendingNonceAt returns the next unused nonce for the account, while NonceAt returns the current nonce for the account.
Another difference is that PendingNonceAt just gets the next nonce, while NonceAt tries to get the nonce of the account on a specified block number; if non is passed, it returns the nonce of the account on the last known block.
Both methods initiate JSON-RPC calls using eth_getTransactionCount; however, the first includes a second parameter of "pending," while the other specifies the block number.
Now, create a 'getNonce.go' file and paste the code below:
package main
import (
"context"
"fmt"
"log"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
)
// getNonce fetches and prints the current and next nonce for a given Ethereum address.
func getNonce(address, rpcUrl string) (uint64, uint64) {
client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcUrl)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Retrieve the next nonce for the address
nextNonce, err := client.PendingNonceAt(context.Background(), common.HexToAddress(address))
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
var currentNonce uint64 // Variable to hold the current nonce.
if nextNonce > 0 {
currentNonce = nextNonce - 1
}
return currentNonce, nextNonce
}
Update the main function:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex)
sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl)
sig, sDetails := signMessage(data, privKey)
fmt.Println("\nsigned message:", sDetails)
if isSigner := verifySig(sig, from, data); isSigner {
fmt.Printf("\n%s signed %s\n", from, data)
} else {
fmt.Printf("\n%s did not sign %s\n", from, data)
}
cNonce, nNonce := getNonce(to, sepoliaRpcUrl) // This was just added.
fmt.Printf("\n%s current nonce: %v\n", to, cNonce) // This was just added.
fmt.Printf("%s next nonce: %v\n", to, nNonce) // This was just added.
}
go run . the program, you should see this:
7. Tracing a Transaction
As mentioned earlier, we'll be using Geth's 'rpc' package for transaction tracing, a functionality not directly supported by ethclient.
By tracing transactions, we can visualize the execution path and gain insights into any event logs during execution of the transaction.
For this, we will focus on two main methods: debug_traceTransaction and a custom RPC method by otterscan ots_traceTransaction (explained below).
debug_traceTransaction uses Geth's native transaction tracing, which takes in the transaction hash and a trace configuration, specifying the type of trace to do. Geth has different native tracers, but we will be using the "callTracer". To see all available Geth native tracers, you can read the documentation later.
debug_traceTransaction leverages Geth's built-in transaction tracing capabilities. It requires two arguments:
The transaction hash, and
A trace configuration: This specifies the details of the trace, such as the type of information to capture. Geth offers various native tracers, but for this example, we'll focus on the "callTracer". This tracer tracks all the call frames (function call) executed during a transaction execution.
An example of a trace generated using the 'callTracer' configuration:
client.CallContext(
context.Background(),
&result,
"debug_traceTransaction",
"0xd12e31c3274ff32d5a73cc59e8deacbb0f7ac4c095385add3caa2c52d01164c1",
map[string]any{
"tracer": "callTracer",
"tracerConfig": map[string]any{"withLog": true}}
)The config parameter, following the transaction hash, instructs the connected Geth node to perform a call trace and include any generated event logs.
We will use ots_traceTransaction (see explanation after the code).
Create a traceTx.go file in our project and paste the code below:
package main
import (
"context"
"encoding/json"
"fmt"
"log"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/rpc"
)
func traceTx(hash, rpcUrl string) string {
var (
client *rpc.Client // Define a variable to hold the RPC client.
err error // Variable to catch errors.
)
// Connect to the Ethereum RPC endpoint using the provided URL.
client, err = rpc.Dial(rpcUrl)
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
var result json.RawMessage // Variable to hold the raw JSON result of the call.
// Make the RPC call to trace the transaction using its hash. `ots_traceTransaction` is the method name.
err = client.CallContext(context.Background(), &result, "ots_traceTransaction", hash) // or use debug_traceTransaction with a supported RPC URL and params: hash, map[string]any{"tracer": "callTracer", "tracerConfig": map[string]any{"withLog": true}} for Geth tracing
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
// Marshal the result into a formatted JSON string
resBytes, err := json.MarshalIndent(result, " ", "\t")
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
return string(resBytes))
}
Update the main function:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex)
sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl)
sig, sDetails := signMessage(data, privKey)
fmt.Println("\nsigned message:", sDetails)
if isSigner := verifySig(sig, from, data); isSigner {
fmt.Printf("\n%s signed %s\n", from, data) }
else {
fmt.Printf("\n%s did not sign %s\n", from, data)
}
cNonce, nNonce := getNonce(to, sepoliaRpcUrl)
fmt.Printf("\n%s current nonce: %v\n", to, cNonce)
fmt.Printf("%s next nonce: %v\n", to, nNonce)
res := traceTx("0xd12e31c3274ff32d5a73cc59e8deacbb0f7ac4c095385add3caa2c52d01164c1", mainnetRpcUrl) // This was just added.
fmt.Println("\ntrace result:\n", res) // This was just added.
}ots_traceTransaction is a custom Ethereum JSON-RPC method for transaction tracing developed by Otterscan and it is not part of Geth. It only requires the transaction hash as input and returns a structured trace output without any logs.
Note that the Sepolia RPC URL in the sepoliaRpcUrl variable does not support the ots_traceTransaction method. For this example, we'll use the mainnet RPC URL stored in the mainnetRpcUrl variable, which does support it.
After running the program, we should see the call trace.
Exercise: Modify the traceTx function to use Geth's debug_traceTransaction with the previously demonstrated callTracer config. Use the sepoliaRpcUrl and a corresponding Sepolia transaction hash for the trace.
You should see a slightly different trace output than the previous one that looks like this:
8. Create and send EIP-4844 blob transaction
The dencun hard-fork just went live on Ethereum and it introduced several EIPs, with one being EIP-4844 with a new transaction type called blob transaction (type 3).
Blobs are short form for Binary Large Objects. In the case of Ethereum, it is a transaction data that persist on the consensus layer of ethereum and not the execution layer like other transactions. Therefore, you need consensus clients like Prysm to access them and not Geth which is an execution client.
Blob transactions field
Blob transaction has similar fields to EIP-1559 transaction but with some added fields like blob_versioned_hashes (vector of sha256 hashes), and max_fee_per_blob_gas(uint256) and a rule that the transaction to field must not be nil.
The versioned hash of a blob which is 32 bytes, is made up of a single byte representing the version (currently 0x01, will likely change when Ethereum moves to full-sharding) at the start, followed by the last 31 bytes of the SHA256 hash of the KZG commitment of the blob(explained below).
versioned hash
// go-ethereum/crypto/kzg4844/kzg4844.go
// CalcBlobHashV1 calculates the 'versioned blob hash' of a commitment.
func CalcBlobHashV1(hasher hash.Hash, commit *Commitment) (vh [32]byte) {
if hasher.Size() != 32 {
panic("wrong hash size")
}
hasher.Reset()
hasher.Write(commit[:])
hasher.Sum(vh[:0]) // save the commitment hash to `vh`
vh[0] = 0x01 // set hash version
return vh
}Where are blob stored?
The full contents of a blob are not embedded to a block nor persisted on the execution layer and is not accessible in the EVM, instead are managed seperately by the beacon chain (consensus layer) as blob sidecars in other to save block space for normal transaction execution.
A Sidecar can contain one or a list of blobs (128 bytes each), a list of their corresponding kzg commitment (48 bytes each) and a list of their corresponding kzg proof (48 bytes each).
Blobs are stored in the beacon chain for 18 days and then they're pruned after. Rollups can deal with this expiry by also storing blobs theirselves or use p2p storage to store blobs.
Blob sidecar
// go-ethereum/core/types/tx_blob.go
// BlobTxSidecar contains the blobs of a blob transaction.
type BlobTxSidecar struct {
Blobs []kzg4844.Blob // Blobs
Commitments []kzg4844.Commitment // Blob commitments
Proofs []kzg4844.Proof // Blob KZG proofs
}
The blob is used to compute the KZG commitment, and the blob togther with the KZG commitment is used to compute the KZG proof. This proof is used to verify the blob against the commitment.
What are blobs used for?
The main use case for blobs are to handle layer 2s and rollups block data, instead of using calldata which users also use, leading to a competion for block space. Using a seperate transaction (blobs) reduce cost for layer 2s and rollups.
However, blobs are not limited to just rollups and can be used by anyone. I will demonstrate how to send a blob transaction later.
Limit of blob per transaction
We can send more than one blob per transaction, however, there is a target of 3 and maximum of 6 blobs per block limit, so technically a blob transaction can contain up to six blobs if it were the only blob transaction in the block. This also implies that the sidecar which contains these blobs will contain the same amount of blob commitment and versioned hashes as the number of blobs in it, six in this case.
Blob gas
Blob transactions use a different type of gas called blob gas and have the following parameters: MAX_BLOB_GAS_PER_BLOCK of 786,432; TARGET_BLOB_GAS_PER_BLOCK of 393,216; and MIN_BLOB_BASE_FEE of 1.
It is seperate from the existing transaction gas we know. The blob gas fee has a similar pricing mechanism to EIP-1559 in that it increases and decreases based on network congestion. It increases if the previous block uses more gas than the TARGET_BLOB_GAS_PER_BLOCK (~3 blobs) and decreases when the previous block uses less.
Note that the blob versioned hashes are stored as references to blobs in the execution layer. But the blobs are not stored in the execution layer. Blobs do not need priority fee because the blob data will not be executed.
Finally, creating a blob transaction in Go follows a very similar step to a normal transaction, except that we use the types.BlobTx struct and pass the blob related fields as hinted earlier.
Create a blobTx.go file and paste the following code:
package transaction
import (
"context"
"fmt"
"regexp"
"strings"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/common/hexutil"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/core/types"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto"
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/crypto/kzg4844"=
"github.com/ethereum/go-ethereum/ethclient"
"github.com/holiman/uint256"
)
// SendBlobTX sends a transaction with an EIP-4844 blob payload to the Ethereum network.
func sendBlobTX(rpcURL, toAddress, data, privKey string) (string, error) {
// Connect to the Ethereum client
client, err := ethclient.Dial(rpcURL)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to dial RPC client: %s", err)
}
defer client.Close() // Ensure the connection is closed after completing the function
// Retrieve the current chain ID
chainID, err := client.ChainID(context.Background())
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to get chain ID: %s", err)
}
var Blob [131072]byte // Define a blob array to hold the large data payload, blobs are 128kb in length
// If necessary, convert the input data to a byte slice in hex format
var bytesData []byte
if data != "" {
// Check if the data is in hex format, with or without the '0x' prefix
if IsHexWithOrWithout0xPrefix(data) {
// Ensure the data has the '0x' prefix
if !strings.HasPrefix(data, "0x") {
data = "0x" + data
}
// Decode the hex-encoded data
bytesData, err = hexutil.Decode(data)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to decode data: %s", err)
}
// Copy the decoded data into the blob array
copy(Blob[:], bytesData)
} else {
// If the data is not in hex format, copy it directly into the blob array
copy(Blob[:], data)
}
}
// Compute the commitment for the blob data using KZG4844 cryptographic algorithm
BlobCommitment, err := kzg4844.BlobToCommitment(Blob)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to compute blob commitment: %s", err)
}
// Compute the proof for the blob data, which will be used to verify the transaction
BlobProof, err := kzg4844.ComputeBlobProof(Blob, BlobCommitment)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to compute blob proof: %s", err)
}
// Prepare the sidecar data for the transaction, which includes the blob and its cryptographic proof
sidecar := types.BlobTxSidecar{
Blobs: []kzg4844.Blob{Blob},
Commitments: []kzg4844.Commitment{BlobCommitment},
Proofs: []kzg4844.Proof{BlobProof},
}
// Decode the sender's private key
pKeyBytes, err := hexutil.Decode("0x" + privKey)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to decode private key: %s", err)
}
// Convert the private key into the ECDSA format
ecdsaPrivateKey, err := crypto.ToECDSA(pKeyBytes)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to convert private key to ECDSA: %s", err)
}
// Compute the sender's address from the public key
fromAddress := crypto.PubkeyToAddress(ecdsaPrivateKey.PublicKey)
// Retrieve the nonce for the transaction
nonce, err := client.PendingNonceAt(context.Background(), fromAddress)
fmt.Println(nonce)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to get nonce: %s", err)
}
// Create the transaction with the blob data and cryptographic proofs
tx, err := types.NewTx(&types.BlobTx{
ChainID: uint256.MustFromBig(chainID),
Nonce: nonce,
GasTipCap: uint256.NewInt(1e10), // max priority fee per gas
GasFeeCap: uint256.NewInt(50e10), // max fee per gas
Gas: 250000, // gas limit for the transaction
To: common.HexToAddress(toAddress), // recipient's address
Value: uint256.NewInt(0), // value transferred in the transaction
Data: nil, // No additional data is sent in this transaction
BlobFeeCap: uint256.NewInt(3e10), // fee cap for the blob data
BlobHashes: sidecar.BlobHashes(), // blob hashes in the transaction
Sidecar: &sidecar, // sidecar data in the transaction
}), err
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to create transaction: %s", err)
}
// Sign the transaction with the sender's private key
signedTx, err := types.SignTx(tx, types.LatestSignerForChainID(chainID), ecdsaPrivateKey)
if err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to sign transaction: %s", err)
}
// Send the signed transaction to the Ethereum network
if err = client.SendTransaction(context.Background(), signedTx); err != nil {
return "", fmt.Errorf("failed to send transaction: %s", err)
}
// Return the transaction hash
txHash := signedTx.Hash().Hex()
return txHash, nil
}
// IsHexWithOrWithout0xPrefix checks if a string is hex with or without `0x` prefix using regular expression.
func IsHexWithOrWithout0xPrefix(data string) bool {
pattern := `^(0x)?[0-9a-fA-F]+$`
matched, _ := regexp.MatchString(pattern, data)
return matched
}Update the main function:
func main() {
fmt.Println("using ethclient...")
getSuggestedGasPrice(sepoliaRpcUrl)
eGas := estimateGas(sepoliaRpcUrl, from, to, data, wei)
fmt.Println("\nestimate gas for the transaction is:", eGas)
rawTxRLPHex := createRawTransaction(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey, gasLimit, wei)
fmt.Println("\nRaw TX:\n", rawTxRLPHex) sendRawTransaction(rawTxRLPHex, sepoliaRpcUrl)
sig, sDetails := signMessage(data, privKey)
fmt.Println("\nsigned message:", sDetails)
if isSigner := verifySig(sig, from, data); isSigner {
fmt.Printf("\n%s signed %s\n", from, data)
} else {
fmt.Printf("\n%s did not sign %s\n", from, data)
}
cNonce, nNonce := getNonce(to, sepoliaRpcUrl)
fmt.Printf("\n%s current nonce: %v\n", to, cNonce)
fmt.Printf("%s next nonce: %v\n", to, nNonce)
res := traceTx("0xd12e31c3274ff32d5a73cc59e8deacbb0f7ac4c095385add3caa2c52d01164c1", mainnetRpcUrl)
fmt.Println("\ntrace result:\n", res)
blob, err := sendBlobTX(sepoliaRpcUrl, to, data, privKey) // This was just added.
if err != nil {
log.Fatalln(err)
}
fmt.Println("\nBlob transaction hash:", blob) // This was just added.
}
Before running our program, temporarily comment out the sendRawTransaction and traceTx function calls. This is because a pending transaction from sendRawTransaction can cause a nonce conflict (nonce gap error) when creating the blob transaction, and subsequent traceTx call will clutter the terminal output.
After doing that, run with go run .. You should get the transaction hash.
You can look it up on Etherscan, here is the one I made:
Summary
The Go-Ethereum (Geth) ethclient package simplifies many common interactions with Ethereum. However, like every other client out there, it doesn't provide methods for all Ethereum JSON-RPC APIs, as we have seen with transaction tracing. In cases like this, manually constructing a JSON-RPC call is necessary. Fortunately, the Geth rpc package makes this easier for Go developers.